The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. In earlier years, behavioural approaches and methods focused on elements such as behaviours and actions that were observable, basing on the assumption that feelings and thoughts can be changed following the change of behaviour. Since the use of quantitative data analysis techniques and qualitative data analysis techniques each present their own ethical challenges, these are addressed separately. During the treatment process, counsellors should help the client to be aware to his or her feelings behaviour, offering the essential tools and resources. analysis process. Probably the most common question that evaluation research is directed toward is whether the program being evaluated works or makes a difference. Analysis also could be accomplished by a participatory process. The Carl Rogers Reader. Then analyze their relationship marketing strategies. As far as data collection goes, the “when” part of this question is relatively simple: data collection should start no later than when you begin your work – or before you begin in order to establish a baseline or starting point – and continue throughout. It might be obvious from your data collection, for instance, that, while violence or roadway injuries may not be seen as a problem citywide, they are much higher in one or more particular areas, or that the rates of diabetes are markedly higher for particular groups or those living in areas with greater disparities of income. The heart of evaluation research is gathering information about the program or intervention you’re evaluating and analyzing it to determine what it tells you about the effectiveness of what you’re doing, as well as about how you can maintain and improve that effectiveness. If you’re conducting an evaluation in which the observation is specialized, the data collectors may be staff members, professionals, highly trained volunteers, or others with specific skills or training (graduate students, for example). Learn how to collect your data and analyze it, figuring out what it means, so that you can use it to draw some conclusions about your work. Benjamin, M. (2001). (ADM) 92-18894. Using Stata for quantitative analysis. 2.1. Business, Government and society. *You can also browse our support articles here >. It may also show you patterns – in behavior, physical or social environment, or other factors – that the numbers in your quantitative data don’t, and occasionally even identify variables that researchers weren’t aware of. There are a number of different kinds of results you might be looking for. Lerner (1989) has defined intimate relationship as “…one in which neither party silences, sacrifices, or betrays the self and each party expresses strength and vulnerability, weakness and competence in a balanced way.” (Lerner, 1989, p.3). Correlations may also indicate patterns in your data, or may lead to an unexpected way of looking at the issue you’re addressing. Print. Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., & Saldana, J. (Take a course, for example.). Collecting and Using Archival Data, Charts and Graphs to Communicate Research Findings, Center for Community Health and Development. Even where complicated statistical procedures are necessary, participants and/or community members might be involved in sorting out what those results actually mean once the math is done and the results are in. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. to remain available. Cognitive therapists have believed that individuals can only change their behaviour or the way they act by changing their patterns of thinking and beliefs. If you are conducting observations, for example, you’ll have to define what you’re observing and arrange to make observations at the right times, so you actually observe what you need to. Do you have a 2:1 degree or higher? Free resources to assist you with your university studies! Transcribing (making an exact, word-for-word text version of) the contents of audio or video recordings, Coding data (translating data, particularly qualitative data that isn’t expressed in numbers, into a form that allows it to be processed by a specific software program or subjected to statistical analysis). New York, NY: SAGE. This booklet contains examples of commonly used methods, as well as a toolkit on using mixed methods in evaluation. Using positive verbal encourages can also create a positive environment, in which the client trusts confidentially his or her counsellor’s supportive expressions and behaviour. Bordin, E.S. In: W.R. Miller and S. Rollnick (Eds.). The current essay will demonstrate several significant elements that are associated with counselling intervention as a psychological process, clarifying important aspects and strategies that contribute to the effectiveness of the process. Various kinds of quantitative analysis can indicate changes in a dependent variable related to – frequency, duration, timing (when particular things happen), intensity, level, etc. New York, NY: SAGE. You might also want to group observations in several different ways, so that you can study interactions among different variables. Are there particular components or elements you can change to make your program more effective, or should you start again from scratch? Some examples include: Data can also be collected in forms other than numbers, and turned into quantitative data  for analysis. Reference this. The significant aspect of the interrelationship of the individual with the environment has also played a central role in the Gestalt approach, emphasising the individual’s perception of reality. Where one person might see a change in program he considers important another may omit it due to perceived unimportance. Using silences in the relationship allows both the counsellor and the client to get closer, to share feelings and thoughts, or in a different way, to be aware of distances and gaps that may occur in the process. There are other excellent possibilities for analysis besides statistical procedures, however. (1975). In: H. Kirschenbaum and L. Henderson (Eds.). These might, for instance, include entering numerical observations into a chart, table, or spreadsheet, or figuring the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequently occurring) of a set of numbers. Interpersonal Therapy has focused on the interpersonal relationships of the client, assuming that psychological problems can be treated by changing and improving patterns of relationships and communication. These operations, because numbers are “hard” data and not interpretation, can give definitive, or nearly definitive, answers to different questions. Among American teenagers, for instance, there is probably a fairly high correlation between an increase in body size and an understanding of algebra. Be aware, however, that quantitative analysis is influenced by a number of subjective factors as well. The three main core conditions of unconditional positive regard, empathy and congruence aids the client in feeling respected, valued and listened to non-judgmentally. Use what you’ve learned to continue to evaluate what you do by collecting and analyzing data, and continually improve your program. The usage of these crucial elements has reflected the concept that although during the counselling process a flexible environment is created, in which the client feels confident to explore and examine earlier experiences that have not been sublimated, the counsellor’s thoughts and behaviour are not less significant, and he or she must create an environment, which is characterised by congruence, empathic understanding and acceptance. Since the 1970s behavioural approaches have emphasised the aspect of the role of thinking and the patterns of beliefs and its crucial effect on human behaviour. Washington, DC: Supt. Miller, W.R., Zweben, A., DiClemente, C.C., and Rychtarik, R.G. Now it’s time to collect your data and analyze it – figuring out what it means – so that you can use it to draw some conclusions about your work. (1991). Quantitative data is usually subjected to statistical procedures such as calculating the mean or average number of times an event or behavior occurs (per day, month, year). ), Survey results (e.g., reported behavior, or outcomes to environmental conditions; ratings of satisfaction, stress, etc. They can allow you to compare those changes to one another, to changes in another variable, or to changes in another population. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 4th edition. The element of congruence reflects to the client trust, honesty and transparency, in respect of the counsellor’s personality and behaviour, creates a positive environment of respect and open communication, and promotes him or her to expose his or her thoughts, beliefs and feelings. That is in some ways a weakness, but it’s also a strength. New York, NY: SAGE. Information Gathering and Synthesis, Section 3. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Are you using an absolutely wrong approach? Basing on professional literature, researchers have emphasised a respectful, objective and caring approach to be essential during the treatment process, as the client can feel disrespect even whether he or she in a stage of regression, in respect to their mental situation, and confrontation often leads to negative results as denial (Miller et al., 1992), while the therapist should use the accurate approach and information, if required, to each stage of the process (Diclemente, 1991). Off. Paraphrasing has been regarded in professional literature as an influential reaction that contributes greatly to the process’ progress. Quantitative data refer to the information that is collected as, or can be translated into, numbers, which can then be displayed and analyzed mathematically. You can often use qualitative data to understand the meaning of an intervention, and people’s reactions to the results.The observation that participants are continually suffering from a variety of health problems may be traced, through qualitative data, to nutrition problems (due either to poverty or ignorance) or to lack of access to health services, or to cultural restrictions (some Muslim women may be unwilling – or unable because of family prohibition – to accept care and treatment from male doctors, for example). These necessary conditions consist beyond other critical elements such as empathy and honesty in the therapeutic treatment, components of congruence. It’s fairly easy to tell whether or not there’s a major difference between the numbers for the two or more groups. On the other hand, correlations can reveal important connections. DiClemente, C.C. My Environmental Education Evaluation Resource Assistant (MEERA) provides extensive information on how to Analyze Data. London: Constable. In: L.C. The challenges of translating qualitative into quantitative data have to do with the human factor. Counsellors’ attitudes and reaction can assist their clients to make a significant change in the thoughts as well as behaviour. REBT strategies provide clients the tools and the ability to replace exaggerated beliefs and thoughts with encouraging adaptive thinking, emphasising the modification of self-destructive concepts and feelings and the elimination of irrational or negative thoughts. Collecting and analyzing qualitative data – interviews, descriptions of environmental factors, or events, and circumstances – can provide insight into how participants experience the issue you’re addressing, what barriers and advantages they experience, and what you might change or add to improve what you do. Qualitative data are collected as descriptions, anecdotes, opinions, quotes, interpretations, etc., and are generally either not able to be reduced to numbers, or are considered more valuable or informative if left as narratives. New York: Brunner/hazel. Measuring and evaluating whether or not there is a causal relationship between corporate social responsibility and corporate financial performance. By allowing the client to explore his or her hidden world and new aspects in his or her behaviour, recognising social and mental experiences can occur during the treatment process as well as the development of an insight. An informal evaluation will involve some data gathering and analysis. If you’re more concerned with a summative evaluation – finding out whether your approach was effective, you might be more inclined toward the first. Burton (1975) has suggested that the therapist behaves during the treatment process as a person who involved deeply with the client and his or her environment. Sixteen training modules It may reveal why certain methods are working or not working, whether part of what you’re doing conflicts with participants’ culture, what participants see as important, etc. An extensive list of both for collecting and analyzing data and on computerized disease registries is available. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. No plagiarism, guaranteed! A very high correlation between gang membership and having a parent with a substance abuse problem may not reveal a direct cause-and-effect relationship, but may tell you something important about who is more at risk for substance abuse. Both approaches are legitimate, but ongoing data collection and review can particularly lead to improvements in your work. How to write methodology dissertation sample for essay about city of london. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on the UKDiss.com website then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! His willingness to respond to my every cry for help, and his ability to help me move forward from my own starting point was essential in completing this dissertation. Research Methods Knowledge Base is a comprehensive web-based textbook that provides useful, comprehensive, relatively simple explanations of how statistics work and how and when specific statistical operations are used and help to interpret data. Selecting the right analyses for your data: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. As we discuss elsewhere in the Community Tool Box, good programs are dynamic -- constantly striving to improve, rather than assuming that what they’re doing is as good as it can be. Some of the things you might do with the information you collect include: There are two kinds of variables in research. Lerner, H. (1989). One may dislike the program because of the content, the facilitator, the time of day, etc. Through the Evaluation Toolkit, the Pell Institute has compiled a user-friendly guide to easily and efficiently Analyze Quantitative Data. Qualitative data can sometimes be changed into numbers, usually by counting the number of times specific things occur in the course of observations or interviews, or by assigning numbers or ratings to dimensions (e.g., importance, satisfaction, ease of use). The usage of congruence in the counselling process has been based on the concept that counsellors who behave in this manner encourage their clients to share their thoughts and experiences conveniently, moving towards feelings of unconditional respect and acceptance. Rogers, C.R. The Weaknesses of Showing a Lack of Respect. In addition to explaining the basis of quantitative analysis, the site also provides information on data tabulation, descriptives, disaggregating data, and moderate and advanced analytical methods. Organizing data in ways that make them easier to work with. Using paraphrasing during counselling also assists the counsellor to clarify and brighten the client’s expressions. The Strengths of Focusing on a Client Issue. Lerner (1989) has defined intimate relationship as “…one in which neither party silences, sacrifices, or betrays the self and each party expresses strength and vulnerability, weakness and competence in a balanced way.” (Lerner, 1989, p.3). that can be found within it. Choosing Questions and Planning the Evaluation, Section 2. This may not give you convincing information but it will almost undoubtedly give you some ideas to follow up on, and some indications of connections and avenues you might not yet have considered. If 95% of the students in your class passed the test, and only 60% of those in a similar but uninstructed control group did, you can be pretty sure that your class made a difference in some way, although you may not be able to tell exactly what it was that mattered. The term “significance” has a specific meaning when you’re discussing statistics. (2013). The Benefits of Allowing the Client to Explore. Monsour, M. (1992). Using summaries, or in other words, statements that draw together and review the essence of significant client’s expressions can condense and reflect important thoughts, beliefs, values and feelings that the client has expressed, and several cases explored, during the counselling process. Ellis, A. As you might expect, quantitative and qualitative information needs to be analyzed differently. The .05 level is generally considered a reasonable result, and the .01 level (99% probability) is considered about as close to certainty as you are likely to get. Analysis of qualitative data is generally accomplished by methods more subjective – dependent on people’s opinions, knowledge, assumptions, and inferences (and therefore biases) – than that of quantitative data. Summaries that often occur at transition stages within a session or at the end of a session assist the client to organise expressions and events that have occurred in an earlier stage of the session. Even if most people agree on what 1 (lowest) or 5 (highest) means in regard to rating “satisfaction” with a program, ratings of 2, 3, and 4 may be very different for different people. Miller and Rollnick (1991) have added that motivational techniques and strategies that focus on the client in the process and his or her immediate environment can lead to effective results. That may mean subjecting it to statistical operations that can tell you not only what kinds of relationships seem to exist among variables, but also to what level you can trust the answers you’re getting. Not all important findings will necessarily tell you whether your program worked, or what is the most effective method. (1968). Data Collection: Designing an Observational System, Section 4. The Encyclopaedia of Ethics (2nd ed.). Whether your evaluation includes formal or informal research procedures, you’ll still have to collect and analyze data, and there are some basic steps you can take to do so. Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People to Change Addictive Behaviour. The other is that if you analyze it as you go along, you’ll be able to adjust your thinking about what information you actually need, and to adjust your program to respond to the information you’re getting. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a university student. Brown, M. & Hale, K. (2014). Longest, K.C. That look can’t be translated to a number, nor can a teacher’s knowledge of that student’s history, progress, and experience, all of which go into the teacher’s interpretation of that look. Again, these results won’t be as reliable as if the comparison were made using statistical procedures, but they can point you in the right direction. You can use the information you’ve gained to adjust and improve your program or intervention, evaluate it again, and use that information to adjust and improve it further, for as long as it runs. Charts and Graphs to Communicate Research Findings, from the Model Systems Knowledge Translation Center (MSKTC), will provide guidance on which chart types are best suited for which types of data and for which purposes, shows examples of preferred practices and practical tips for each chart type, and provides cautions and examples of misuse and poor use of each chart type and how to make corrections. If your analysis shows that your program is ineffective or negative, however – or, for that matter, if a positive analysis leaves you wondering how to make your successful efforts still more successful – interpretation becomes more complex. Gathering together information from all sources and observations, Making photocopies of all recording forms, records, audio or video recordings, and any other collected materials, to guard against loss, accidental erasure, or other problems, Entering narratives, numbers, and other information into a computer program, where they can be arranged and/or worked on in various ways. For instance, community initiatives often want to document the amount and intensity of environmental changes they bring about – the new programs and policies that result from their efforts. And that interpretation may be far more valuable in helping that student succeed than knowing her grade or numerical score on the test. New York, NY: SAGE. Kanter and A.P. Interpersonal Psychotherapy. All work is written to order. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Project MATCH Monograph Series, 2. (2012). Additionally, in order to gauge your program’s longer-term effects, you should collect follow-up data for a period of time following the conclusion of the program. (1957). Researchers can count the number of times an event is documented in interviews or records, for instance, or assign numbers to the levels of intensity of an observed event or behavior. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. We've previously discussed designing an observational system to gather information. Data analysis techniques and research ethics. Cognitive behaviour modification. You’ve decided how you’re going to get information – whether by direct observation, interviews, surveys, experiments and testing, or other methods – and now you and/or other observers have to implement your plan. In: J.K. Zeig (Ed.). You’ll have to record the observations in appropriate ways and organize them so they’re optimally useful. (2014). Basing on several major psychological approaches such as the Cognitive Behaviour Change theory, clients in therapeutic treatments are required to monitor their feelings, thinking and interacting both with themselves and with others, as they are encouraged to make changes in the “scripted nature” of their behaviour (Meichenbaum, 1986). Whether this is an option depends to a large extent on what your program is about. Is there a particular contributing factor you’re failing to take into account? Finally, I would like to acknowledge Mark L. Spearman, Ph.D. for his ability to help me see the data, so that I could eventually write about it. Becker (Eds.). Applied research methods in public & nonprofit organizations. In previous sections of this chapter, we’ve discussed studying the issue, deciding on a research design, and creating an observational system for gathering information for your evaluation. CDC’s Analyzing Quantitative Data for Evaluation provides steps to planning and conducting quantitative analysis, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of using quantitative methods. Counselling interventions have been defined in professional literature as a unique interrelationship between a client and a counsellor, which aims to create a change and a growth in three main areas: Personal development, social adjustment, and professional development. These approaches have emphasised the main purpose of the counselling process as a psychological treatment that aims to aid the client to expose and to classify distorted patterns of thinking and beliefs and to learn new realistic ways to interpret personal experiences. Your contribution can help change lives. If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help! A 95% level of certainty doesn’t mean that the program works on 95% of participants, or that it will work 95% of the time. Provided by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, this HRSA Toolkit offers advice on successfully collecting and analyzing data. Monsour (1992) has added that during the process the counsellor provides an unconditional support, which has been regarded as one aspect of an intimate relationship. The timing of analysis can be looked at in at least two ways: One is that it’s best to analyze your information when you’ve collected all of it, so you can look at it as a whole. According to Rogers (1957) a central key to self-generated rehabilitation of psychological problems and a healthy personality development is hidden in the sufficient conditions of personality change. Furthermore, the numbers say nothing about why people reported the way they did. Statistics or other analysis showed clear positive effects at a high level of significance for the people in your program and – if you used a multiple-group design – none, or far fewer, of the same effects for a similar control group and/or for a group that received a different intervention with the same purpose. Careful and insightful interpretation of your data may allow you to answer questions like these. Those are often matters for logical analysis, or critical thinking. You can collect and rely largely on qualitative data. New York: Gilford Press, 191-202. The point, in terms of your evaluation, is to get an accurate assessment in order to better understand your work and its effects on those you’re concerned with, or in order to better understand the overall situation. Collecting quantitative data – information expressed in numbers – and subjecting it to a visual inspection or formal statistical analysis can tell you whether your work is having the desired effect, and may be able to tell you why or why not as well. Essentially, collecting data means putting your design for collecting information into operation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9: 277-295. New York: Routledge, 1250-1253. The two may be connected, but they may not, or both may be related to a third variable that you’re not aware of or that you consider trivial.) Goldstein (Eds.). (The word “may” is important here. If you’re reasonably familiar with statistics and statistical procedures, and you have the resources in time, money, and personnel, it’s likely that you’ll do a somewhat formal study, using standard statistical tests. Vogt, W.P., Vogt, E.R., Gardner, D.C., & Haeffele, L.M. If possible, use a randomized or closely matched control group for comparison. Finally, another important aspect that should be regarded in the counselling process as well as in other treatment processes is the ethic of care. You have to become a cultural detective to understand your initiative, and, in some ways, every evaluation is an anthropological study. It means that there’s only a 5% possibility that it isn’t actually what’s influencing the dependent variable(s) and causing the changes that it seems to be associated with. ), to help draw some conclusions from the data. CDC’s Analyzing Qualitative Data for Evaluation provides how-to guidance for analyzing qualitative data. Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. If positive or negative changes in particular variables are consistently associated with positive or negative changes in other variables, the two may be connected. 10th Jan 2018 If you have the right numbers, you can find out a great deal about whether your program is causing or contributing to change and improvement, what that change is, whether there are any expected or unexpected connections among variables, how your group compares to another you’re measuring, etc. It is mostly essential to clarify to the client that the counselling treatment aims to be centred on his or her thoughts and behaviour and to assist him or her to make the desirable change. You wouldn’t want to conduct a formal evaluation of effectiveness of a new medication using only qualitative data, but you might be able to draw some reasonable conclusions about use or compliance patterns from qualitative information. Within their guide, they answer various questions such as: What type of analysis do I need?, How do I analyze qualitative/quantitative data?, and What software can I use to analyze qualitative/quantitative data? During the history of psychology and counselling a wide range of attitudes and approaches such as the Psychoanalytic theory, the Gestalt, Rogers’ Theory and the Behaviourism have been developed in order to provide the client the ability to explore his or her inner world in varied strategies and modes of interaction that aim to increase the level of awareness as well as the level of motivation to change. Now it’s time to put that system in place. The Benefits of Using Silences in the Relationship. Burton, A. VAT Registration No: 842417633. An independent variable (the intervention) is a condition implemented by the researcher or community to see if it will create change and improvement.

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